By: Chrysoula P. Opinionated Article 5/23/15
In the United States, a second language is often offered in middle school or high school. Most colleges require a second language as part of the curriculum requirement for admission or graduation. Foreign languages can be extremely difficult for many students and are never learned entirely to fluency level. Yet, research has shown that second language acquisition alters brain development and that, just like reading, writing and math, a second language should be taught as early as possible, in order to make language acquisition easier and more successful as well as to develop other cognitive skills. Windows of opportunity for language acquisition exist from birth, and children who learn second languages early have a greater chance for success in this area. Foreign language courses should be made an integral part of the elementary school curriculum to help students increase their efficiency in foreign language acquisition later in life and to improve many other cognitive areas within the brain.
We are told by neuroscientists that babies are born with millions of brain cells; more than they will ever need in their lifetime. The brain cell connections become “hard-wired” based on their repeated use, “allowing signals to be transmitted quickly and accurately” and alternately, fade away if not stimulated often enough (Shiver). There are many windows of opportunity for language development throughout one’s lifetime, according to Ms. Shiver, a sociologist at the Intercultural Developmental Research Association (IDRA). A child who hears two languages being spoken from birth has an advantage in that he or she will be able to discern the sounds of each language and speak each language with the accent of a native speaker. The child will initially use both languages interchangeably but by two and one half years old it will sort out the different languages and by seven years old, it will speak each language with proper diction and native fluency. This is not, of course, the only time a child can acquire fluency in a foreign language. If a child is exposed to a foreign language after the age of three, he or she will still acquire full fluency within two years. However, as adults, foreign language is not as easily acquired because the window of opportunity for learning is no longer as widely open.
Other changes also occur in the brain when a foreign language is studied. The cortex which plays a major role in language, memory and thought also shows a thickening of the organ within the brain. This occurs when a second language is learned during childhood. This is due to “the stimulation of new neural growth and connections that is demonstrated in the acquisition of other complex motor skills” (Rowe). In one research investigation, researchers took MRI scans to measure the cortex thickness of 66 bilingual and 22 monolingual men and women. They then further distinguished bilinguals by who learned the second language from 0-3 years, 4-7 years, and 8-13 years. The results showed that the sooner a child learns a second language, the more proficient that child will become in that language and the adjusted shape of the brain’s cortex will also “facilitate or enhance other learning” (Rowe) such as better memory and strategic thinking. Another area within the brain is called the Broca’s area which is responsible for producing language. Other cognitive areas that are enhanced with second language acquisition include multi-tasking on two tasks and higher analytical thinking, and enlarged parts of the brain that are devoted to memory, thinking and planning. An added boost is the theory that bilingualism also delays the onset of Alzheimer’s disease and dementia.
In 2013, Dr. Alladi et al. conducted an experiment in India on 648 patients with dementia. They concluded that bilingualism leads to a delayed onset of dementia by several years as compared with monolingualism (Alladi et al.). A surprising result of the data showed that the differences in the onset of dementia were even greater for illiterate bilinguals versus monolinguals as compared with literate bilinguals and monolinguals. Prior to this study, in 2010, a Canadian team also found that bilingualism delayed the onset of Alzheimer’s disease by five years. These researchers took 200 patients who were diagnosed with Alzheimer’s disease and verified whether they spoke two or more languages or only one language. While the Alzheimer’s patients still had brain deterioration, the bilinguals’ brains were able to provide “compensatory skills to hold back the tell-tale symptoms of Alzheimer’s, such as memory loss, confusion, and difficulties with problem solving and planning” (Baycrest). These results are very important because according to Dr. Freedman, who is head of the Neurology Department at the Sam and Ida Neurology Clinic where the research was conducted, there currently do not exist any medications that can be used to delay the onset of Alzheimer’s symptoms by five years (Baycrest). While we cannot see into the future to determine whether we will acquire Alzheimer’s disease, we can include foreign language learning in our education as both individuals and a society to help delay the possible threat of dementia and to theoretically lessen the burden on our healthcare system.
A different type of study was conducted by Swedish scientists using Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) to show visible effects on the brain in foreign language acquisition. The Swedish researchers chose young military recruits and measured their brain activity while they rigorously studied languages like Russian, Dari, or Arabic. A second control group studied equally as difficult medical and cognitive materials. MRI scans showed that specific parts of the brains of those students studying the foreign languages were more developed and larger. In contrast, the brains of those studying medical and cognitive studies were unchanged. The results of the brain scans also showed a link between the ease with which foreign language learners found languages to be learned based on how much the cerebral cortex was originally developed. Alison Mackey also writes that these results verify why Japanese language which does not discern between the letters “R” and “L” shows only one developed area of their brains with MRI resonance, while English speakers had two areas lighting up; presumably one area for each unique sound. In order for the Japanese to distinguish these two sounds, it is necessary for the brain to reroute its messages. Through technological advances, by greatly exaggerating each sound, it becomes possible for Japanese native speakers to discern the two sounds and in turn highlighting the two areas in the brain.
Although we have often heard that foreign languages are acquired more easily by young children versus older adults, there are some people who argue the opposite. Some linguistic researchers argue that there are several reasons why learning a foreign language can be more successful as an adult (Merritt). They argue that adults have more advanced grammar knowledge such as the conjugation of verbs and construction of sentences. They also believe that adults are expected to have greater vocabulary and more in-depth thoughts that require more complicated phrases which prevent the older learners from appearing fluent when they have attained the same amount of foreign language knowledge that a child may have in the same time period. The linguists acknowledge, however, that accents are not going to disappear amongst the older learners while the younger learners can mimic sounds more easily and become more adept in their pronunciations. Ultimately, they argue that it is the schooling and expert teaching that helps students succeed in foreign language studies which is generally not the path followed by the older learners.
Foreign language instruction also plays a central role in how successfully children can acquire a new language. In the book, Foreign Language Teacher’s Guide to Active Learning, by Deborah Blaz the most successful way of teaching a foreign language is to use activities that appeal to the multiple intelligences. According to Gardner and Hatch, linguistic intelligence is the mastery of a language. Gardner defines mastery of a language as “the ability to read, write, and speak a language to express and appreciate complex meanings” (Blaz, 24). Significantly, linguistic intelligence is what dominates teaching in the majority of Western educational systems. There are, additionally, seven other intelligences according to Gardner which include: Logical-Mathematical that uses deduction, induction, patterning, sequencing, and interpreting of graphs; Visual/Spatial that uses three-dimensional ways to perceive imagery, to navigate, produce and decode information; Kinesthetic which uses the mind to control bodily movements and to manipulate objects; Musical using rhythm, tone, melody, and pitch; Interpersonal which involves communicating and collaborating with others; Intrapersonal which maintains self-esteem, setting goals for oneself, and acquiring values; and Naturalist which senses patterns in and makes connections with elements in nature (Blaz, 25). All of Gardner’s multiple intelligences can be used effectively to teach a foreign language and should be touched upon in a foreign language program.
Linguistic intelligence requires the most important skill of listening. Students must listen to the language carefully before learning to speak it. A study by Campbell showed “a speaker can only speak about 200 words per minute, but a listener can hear and process from 300 to 500 words per minute.” (Blaz, 25) This gives students extra time to process what they hear. It has been found that if students use silent repetition during the language instruction, then they will be more successful with both listening comprehension and memory. Technology has also been proven to be very beneficial to provide a wide variety of listening activities because it can offer different modes of presentation which appeals to the different learning styles of visual, auditory, and kinesthetic. Lectures are often used but they should be kept to a short time frame because students cannot absorb more than 10 minutes of input at one time. The best format for lecture instruction is to have students write down what they already know, questions they may have, and how they feel about listening to this lecture. During the lecture, they should list the main points and the lecturer should stop every 5 minutes to allow the students to absorb what they have just heard. Presenting visuals and props during a lecture will help students absorb more than the 20% that they would normally learn according to Glasser’s scale (Blaz, 7). The best and most effective way to retain the information with 95% retention rate, however, is to have students take turns reading to each other; effectively teaching the subject to another student and themselves at the same time.
Another very effective technique in teaching foreign language includes speaking. Speaking in a foreign language involves communication of ideas, not just one word answers to a teacher’s questions. Question and answer format is considered to be the simplest form of conversation. As students improve their vocabulary and sentence structures, they will increase their ability to communicate their thoughts making them more elaborate and grammatically correct. There are many conversation prompts that can be used to encourage students to speak in the foreign language. Some include, think/pair/share which allows students to learn from each other while encouraging them to also speak in a safe and smaller environment by only speaking with one other student, their partner. Fun activities that engage students include deduction activities like the teacher giving out clues and the children choosing the picture that they conclude is the answer to the clues. Another fun activity for a communication exercise is the inside-outside circle that moves, allowing the students to continually have different partners. This activity encourages movement and makes the teaching more fun because the students are moving and thinking at the same time. A very important way of increasing vocabulary is to learn a new word every day and to use these new words in conversation regularly. The best method and use of vocabulary is to use rhymes and songs that include both written words, pictures, and movements. This, once again, uses all three types of learning methods, including visual, auditory, and kinesthetic (Blaz, 24).
In traditional methodology, other intelligences can be used to teach foreign language, like logical-mathematical intelligence. Foreign languages contain patterns and deductive reasoning. Using story problems in the foreign language helps practice both numbers and vocabulary. Graphs especially help students with strong logical-mathematical intelligence. For the visual-spatial intelligence child, foreign language can be learned through three-dimensional ways which allow the child to recreate, transform, or modify information. One great way to do this is by creating display areas in the classroom which may include photos, articles, projects and student work. Rotating seats also helps change a student’s perspective on classroom instruction. Another effective way to teach is by writing items on different colors of cards or paper or using different ink. Finally, the active-imagination visualization technique should be taught to students to help them remember the gender of nouns. This is done by picturing a feminine attribute on a feminine noun. For example, you may attribute a pink tutu to be feminine, so you picture an apple wearing a pink tutu (la pomme). If you consider a mustache masculine, then you can picture a masculine noun wearing a mustache or beard, like a cucumber (le concombre). Visual arts can also be incorporated into foreign language teaching because it will be remembered the most. Crafts provide imitation, assimilation, and invention in their activities. Musical intelligence is very important to foreign language acquisition because it is the ability to recognize and compose musical pitches, tones, and rhythms. Listening to music helps children develop their accent and become more familiar with the sounds of the language they are learning. Every teacher knows that kinesthetic intelligence is important to a child’s ability to learn. In fact, “Recent research has found that physical activity enhances memory to a large extent,” providing evidence that the mind-body connection is vital to learning (Blaz, 69). One very effective way to acquire language through kinesthetic learning is by using simulations. As we see, all of the intelligences can be tapped in foreign language learning.
A different methodology of instruction called the Byki Program (which stands for Before You Know It) asserts that the foreign vocabulary should be the first thing taught to students. Once the student has a broad vocabulary, he or she can more easily draw on the learned vocabulary to master grammar and create sentences. The learning technique is based on the “declarative method” of learning (White). The human brain has two memory systems: declarative and procedural (White). Facts such as words, phrases, and dates are remembered by the declarative system. The procedural system learns motor skills like riding a bike and using proper grammar. Although language skills need both memory systems, the Byki System created by a company called Transparent Language, believes that the vocabulary is more basic to the memory system and thus should be learned first before associating the grammar rules and procedures. According to this program, vocabulary is learned best when the student is exposed to it at least 5-16 times. Vocabulary must also be meaningful so that it should be taught in many forms such as in auditory form to enhance pronunciation and in a visual form to enhance its meaning. It is also believed that vocabulary must be learned at an individual pace rather than a rushed, standard time frame because creating sentences and learning grammar before the vocabulary foundation is complete impedes in the learning process. Interestingly, the company not only has individual clients, but also sells its products to universities, government agencies and corporations for foreign nationals who are working abroad.
There are many countries around the world that practice several languages in different regions of their countries. When do they begin to teach their students second and third languages? How much do the foreign language programs abroad differ from the domestic programs in the United States? The European Commission has announced that children in Europe are learning second and third languages between the ages of 6-9 years (European Commission). Some are even starting as early as age 3, like the German community in Belgium. The Commission reported that, “On average, in 2009/10, 60.8% of lower secondary education students were learning two or more foreign languages …” as compared to the United States which has dropped its foreign language offerings from 24% to 15% in 2008 (Skorton). Australia which has English as its official language is having ongoing discussions about enforcing Asian languages as its country’s foreign language studies (Jackson). The Prime Minister, Julia Gillard, listed four major languages of study: Chinese (Mandarin), Hindi, Indonesian, and Japanese. England and Scotland are creating laws that will require foreign language studies to begin as early as first grade with a second foreign language beginning in 5th grade (Jackson). When schools in the United States try to balance their budgets, however, the first areas they look to cut are those in foreign language requirements because they are deemed more expendable (Beale). The trend also includes major universities like Cornell University that has “reduced or eliminated instructional offerings in less popular languages” (Skorton). Skorton points out that foreign language deficits will weaken our standing in this “highly competitive [and] tightly interconnected world.” So, why does the European Commission make such a concerted effort to encourage multi-language learning? The Commission outlines its reasons which include the advancement of multicultural dialogue, promoting EU citizenship, increasing opportunities for students to study abroad, and increasing international markets to become more competitive in the global economy. In 2002, the Commission has set a goal of the “mother-tongue +2” which promotes fluency in the mother language and early education for two additional foreign languages. Most of the European Union members are working towards this goal because they recognize their future advantage globally.
Why then does the United States lag in its foreign language programs? The United States government may not feel it is necessary to teach foreign languages to its citizens for several reasons. The European Commission has determined that English is by far the most taught foreign language in most European countries. In 2009/2010, an average of 73% of students enrolled in primary education in the EU were learning English as their second language (European Commission). In lower secondary school, this percentage rose to 90%. Why then, should the United States fund foreign language learning if most of Europe and perhaps other countries choose English as the primary second language of choice? The most important reason is because foreign language acquisition does not only include the mechanics of understanding a different set of words. It includes a deep understanding of the culture and heritage, religion and history, celebrations and pride of that country. Only with the “full package” will a multilingual person successfully integrate and assimilate in a foreign country, industry, and community. On a simpler level, understanding and learning a foreign language forces that person to better accept and tolerate differences between themselves and others. Foreign language study teaches that different is acceptable and enriching. It can be very dangerous to assume that English is the only language that counts. Paradoxically, all other nations around the world have official languages and promote multi-language learning, yet, the United States, does not have an official language, although unofficially English reigns supreme. Other countries recognize the importance of languages for both economic and national security. Yet, the United States stubbornly looks elsewhere to recruit its foreign language speakers. Perhaps, because our nation is built from citizens of multiple nations, we think that our citizens already have second languages but this is far from the truth. As of 2012, only 18% of Americans reported speaking any language other than English while over 53% of Europeans speak a second language (Skorton).
The Asia Society wrote an article outlining the reasons why foreign language acquisition was so crucial to the advancement and competitiveness of any society. Among many varied reasons, the ones that resonated the most were not the practical ones that we continually hear about relating to closer neighborhoods, greater job opportunities, increased global trade and foreign relations. What made more sense and is wholeheartedly experienced is the following: “Since language both shapes and reflects culture and human experience, learning another language opens a door to understanding the people who speak that language and the culture in which they live, in ways that cannot be replicated by any other means” (Farmer). When we read a translation of a book, we can never attain the nuances that are present in the original language unless we read it in its original form. When we play with children who are from another culture, we cannot understand why they act differently from us in their communication, cooperation, and creativity unless we understand their morality, rules, and cultural history. When we work with natives in their country, we cannot comprehend their work ethics, career goals and choices unless we learn about their political, sociological, and theological worlds. And, conversely, they cannot ever begin to understand ours, either.
It is always surprising that most of the American presidents of our country cannot speak a second language. After President Franklin Delano Roosevelt’s foreign language knowledge of German and French, dating back to 1945, the remaining presidents since then are monolingual with a few having a semi-functional command of a foreign language. None seem to deem it necessary to learn a second language; perhaps it would be too ethnic? Our presidents use rhetoric about how foreign language is important, but they have to provide more funding towards it so that we can hire more foreign language teachers and make our diverse country more united in its desire to celebrate our cultures in this wonderful land we call America.
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